Top agent Jonny Geller, who represents John le Carre, among others, offers this writing tip on the Curtis Brown site:
"Every character you write is living a moment in time and it must be true and real in the moment. It must also hint at a past and to an unknown future that we care about."
Let's break that down.
TRUE AND REAL IN THE MOMENT
As well as having a general idea of who our character is we need to know who they are in the moment we're writing about. What are they feeling at this point and how is that feeling influencing their action?
HINT AT A PAST
Of course, none of us are separate from our past, so another thing to consider is how the character's emotions and actions are being influenced by what has gone before.
We don't we don't need to spell that out; as Geller says, a hint is enough. The hint doesn't have to be in the form of dialogue (although it can be).
For instance, sometimes the pictures on the wall, or a piece of jewelry, or an unexpected reaction can do the job. If the character reacts nervously to the appearance of a police car, for instance, that suggests he or she may have had a run-in with the cops before or has something to hide.
HINT AT AN UNKNOWN FUTURE
The character's actions can give us some clues about what's coming up. Again, we want this to be a tantalizing hint, not something that's spelled out. The example of a character who is nervous when he or she sees a police car suggests not only that something happened in the past but that they'll encounter the police again at some point in the story.
THAT WE CARE ABOUT
This refers to the most fundamental aspect of a protagonist--we have to care about this person. That can be because they are likable but it can also be because we find them fascinating but not sympathetic.
WHEN TO CHECK FOR THESE
I think these criteria are best applied during the planning and re-writing phases. If we get too caught up in applying them in the writing phase, it can stop the flow.
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For more ideas about creating characters who come alive on the page, see my book, YOUR WRITING COACH, published by Hachette and available from Amazon or your other favorite bookseller.
